Childhood parental discipline: exploring the factor structure, associations with behavioral problems, and experiences

• Main Author: Won, Ying Qing
• Other Authors: Setoh Pei Pei
• Format: Thesis-Master by Research
• Language: English
• Published: Nanyang Technological University 2024
• Subjects: Social Sciences; Harsh discipline; Physical discipline; Physical punishment; Spanking; Psychological aggression; Emotional aggression; Parenting; Culture
• Online Access: https://hdl.handle.net/10356/177572
• Institution: Nanyang Technological University

Extant empirical evidence consistently demonstrated that parental use of harsh discipline, such as physical discipline and psychological aggression, is associated with detrimental child outcomes. The cultural normativeness theory suggests that in a cultural context where harsh discipline is deemed acceptable, parents tend to administer harsh discipline in a controlled manner, potentially mitigating the adverse consequences of harsh discipline. Thus, harsh discipline may not have similar negative implications in Singapore, where harsh discipline is prevalent. The first study in this thesis examined the factor structure of Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale, a widely used instrument to assess parental use of disciplinary methods. Despite physical discipline being prohibited in many nations, it remains common and lawful in Singapore. The second study focused specifically on illustrating the context, practice, and perception of physical discipline. Then, the last study investigated the link between harsh discipline and behavioral problems. The mediating roles of three attachment facets (i.e., trust, communication, and alienation) in the relationship between harsh discipline and behavioral problems were examined. Three studies were conducted in a sample of 449 young adults aged 18 to 29 years (52% female). Young adults reported on their childhood disciplinary experiences using Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale and current attachment towards parent using Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, separately for mother and father. They also reported on their current externalizing and internalizing problems using Adult Self-Report Questionnaire. Further, they answered about their detailed experiences of physical discipline, including emotional and physical reactions to physical discipline, perceived parents’ emotions, implement, immediacy, privacy, and predictability of physical discipline. In Study 1, multilevel exploratory factor analysis revealed a four-factor structure at within level (i.e., considering maternal and paternal discipline) and a two-factor structure at between level (i.e., “aggregate” of parental discipline from both parents). Although the four factors derived at the within level represent the scale’s theoretical classification, a slightly different item composition underlying each factor suggests potential cross-cultural nuances in the interpretation of parenting behaviors. In Study 2, results indicated that 88% of young adults reported at least one occurrence of physical discipline during childhood. Moreover, 63% of young adults indicated at least one noticeable injury after physical discipline. Of those who were physically disciplined, 89% recalled some instances of their parents not being in control of emotions during physical discipline. Negative emotions (e.g., feeling fearful of parents) were commonly reported. Using within-level factor structure derived from Study 1, path analyses in Study 3 found four direct associations, such that frequent childhood psychological aggression and severe physical discipline from fathers were related to greater behavioral problems (i.e., externalizing and internalizing problems). Mediation results indicated that parental psychological aggression and severe physical discipline were indirectly linked to greater behavioral problems through increased feelings of alienation. Paternal psychological aggression and minor harsh discipline were also indirectly related to greater externalizing problems through reduced communication with fathers. Null finding for maternal minor harsh discipline was observed, after accounting for other disciplinary methods and demographic covariates simultaneously. While harsh discipline may be intended to educate children about what is right and wrong, it is in fact associated with greater behavioral problems. This research also revealed the roles of alienation from parents and poor communication with fathers, as the mechanisms through which harsh discipline is associated with greater behavioral problems. Even in a context where physical discipline is prevalent, most parents are likely to be not fully in control of their emotions and the common aftermath includes physical injuries and negative emotions. Taken together, the findings collectively underscore the pressing need to encourage non-violent disciplinary methods, to reduce violence against children, improve parent-child relations, and promote optimal child development.